CONTENTS
Part One The Language and Approach of Science = 1
Chapter 1 Science and the Scientific Approach = 3
Science and Common Sense = 4
Four Methods of Knowing = 6
Science and Its Functions = 8
The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory = 11
Scientific Research : A Definition = 14
The Scientific Approach = 15
Problem-Obstacle-Idea = 15
Hypothesis = 15
Reasoning-Deduction = 15
Observation-Test-Experiment = 17
Chapter Summary = 19
Study Suggestions = 20
Chapter 2 Problems and Hypotheses = 23
Problems = 24
Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements = 25
Hypotheses = 26
The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses = 27
Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses = 28
Problems, Values, and Definitions = 30
Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hypotheses = 31
The Multivariable Nature of Behavorial Research and Problems = 32
Concluding Remarks : The Special Power of Hypotheses = 33
Chapter Summary = 34
Study Suggestions = 35
Chapter 3 Constructs, Variables, and Definitions = 41
Concepts and Constructs = 42
Variables = 42
Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables = 43
Types of Variables = 48
Independent and Dependent Variables = 48
Active and Attribute Variables = 53
Continuous and Categorical Variables = 54
Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables = 56
Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions = 57
Chapter Summary = 61
Study Suggestions = 62
Part Two Sets, Relations, and Variance = 63
Chapter 4 Sets = 65
Subsets = 66
Set Operations = 67
The Universal and Empty Sets ; Set Negation = 68
Set Diagrams = 69
Set Operations with More Than Two Sets = 70
Partitions and Cross Partitions = 71
Levels of Discourse = 74
Chapter Summary = 77
Study Suggestions = 78
Chapter 5 Relations = 81
Relations as Sets of Ordered Pairs = 82
Determining Relations in Research = 85
Rules of Correspondence and Mapping = 87
Some Ways to Study Relations = 88
Graphs = 88
Tables = 88
Graphs and Correlation = 92
Research Examples = 95
Multivariate Relations and Regression = 98
Some Logic of Multivariate Inquiry = 98
Multiple Relations and Regression = 100
Chapter Summary = 101
Study Suggestions = 101
Chapter 6 Variance and Covariance = 103
Calculation of Means and Variances = 104
Kinds of Variance = 106
Population and Sample Variances = 106
Systematic Variance = 107
Between-Groups(Experimental) Variance = 107
Error Variance = 110
An Example of Systematic and Error Variance = 111
A Subtractive Demonstration : Removing Between-Groups Variance from Total Variance = 114
A Recap of Removing Between-Group Variance from Total Variance = 117
Components of Variance = 118
Covariance = 119
The Computer Addendum = 122
Chapter Summary = 128
Study Suggestions = 129
Part Three Probability, Randomness, and Sampling = 131
Chapter 7 Probability = 133
Definition of Probability = 134
Sample Space, Sample Points, and Events = 135
Determining Probabilities with Coins = 138
An Experiment with Dice = 139
Some Formal Theory = 141
Compound Events and Their Probabilities = 143
Independence, Mutual Exclusiveness, and Exhaustiveness = 145
Conditional Probability = 150
Definition of Conditional Probability = 150
An Academic Example = 152
Bayes' Theorem : Revising Probabilities = 155
Example = 156
Chapter Summary = 158
Study Suggestions = 159
Chapter 8 Sampling and Randomness = 163
Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representativeness = 164
Randomness = 167
An Example of Random Sampling = 167
Randomization = 169
A Senatorial Randomization Demonstration = 171
Sample Size = 175
Kinds of Samples = 178
Some Books on Sampling = 182
Chapter Summary = 183
Study Suggestions = 183
Computer Program Listing to Generate Table 8.2 = 186
Part Four Analysis, Interpretation, Statistics, and Inference = 189
Chapter 9 Principles of Analysis and Interpretation = 191
Frequencies and Continuous = 193
Rules of Categorization = 194
Kinds of Statistical Analysis = 198
Frequency Distributions = 199
Graphs and Graphing = 200
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability = 202
Measures of Relations = 203
Analysis of Differences = 204
Analysis of Variance and Related Methods = 205
Profile Analysis = 207
Multivariate Analysis = 208
Indices = 211
Social Indicators = 213
The Interpretation of Research Data = 214
Adequacy of Research Design, Methodology, Measurement, and Analysis = 215
Negative and Inconclusive Results = 216
Unhypothesized Relations and Unanticipated Findings = 216
Proof, Probability, and Interpretation = 218
Chapter Summary = 219
Study Suggestions = 219
Chapter 10 The Analysis of Frequencies = 221
Data and Variable Terminology = 223
Crosstabs : Definitions and Purpose = 224
Simple Crosstabs and Rules for Crosstab Construction = 225
Calculation of Percentages = 227
Statistical Significance and the X² Test = 229
Levels of Statistical Significance = 232
Types of Crosstabs and Tables = 236
One-Dimensional Tables = 236
Two-Dimensional Tables = 237
Two-Dimensional Tables, "True" Dichotomies, and Continuous Measures = 240
Three-and k-Dimensional Tables = 240
Specification = 241
Crosstabulations, Relations, and Ordered Pairs = 243
The Odds Ratio = 246
Multivariate Analysis of Frequency Data = 247
Computer Addendum = 248
Chapter Summary = 253
Study Suggestions = 254
Chapter 11 Statistics : Purpose, Approach, Method = 257
The Basic Approach = 257
Definition and Purpose of Statistics = 258
Binomial Statistics = 260
The Variance = 262
The Law of Large Numbers = 264
The Normal Probability Curve and the Standard Deviation = 265
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Frequency Data = 268
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Continuous Data = 269
Chapter Summary = 272
Study Suggestions = 273
Chapter 12 Testing Hypotheses and the Standard Error = 275
Examples : Differences Between Means = 276
Absolute and Relative Differences = 277
Correlation Coefficients = 278
Hypothesis Testing : Substantive and Null Hypotheses = 279
The General Nature of a Standard Error = 282
A Monte Carlo Demonstration = 283
The Procedure = 283
Generalizations = 285
The Central Limit Theorem = 286
The Standard Error of the Differences between Means = 287
Statistical Inference = 290
Testing Hypotheses and the Two Types of Errors = 291
The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing = 295
Sample Size Determination = 295
Example = 297
Chapter Summary = 299
Study Suggestions = 300
Part Five Analysis of Variance = 305
Chapter 13 Analysis of Variance : Foundations = 307
Variance Breakdown : A Simple Example = 308
The t-Ratio Approach = 312
The Analysis of Variance Approach = 313
An Example of a Statistically Significant Difference = 315
Calculation of One-Way Analysis of Variance = 317
A Research Example = 321
Strength of Relations : Correlation and the Analysis of Variance = 322
Broadening the Structure : Post Hoc Tests and Planned Comparisons = 327
Post Hoc Tests = 328
Planned Comparisons = 328
Computer Addendum = 331
t-Ratio or t-Test on SPSS = 331
One-Way ANOVA on SPSS = 336
Addendum = 340
Chapter Summary = 340
Study Suggestions = 341
Chapter 14 Factorial Analysis of Variance = 345
Two Research Examples = 346
The Nature of Factorial Analysis of Variance = 350
The Meaning of Interaction = 352
A Simple Fictitious Example = 352
Interaction : An Example = 359
Kinds of Interaction = 362
Notes of Caution = 365
Interaction and Interpretation = 367
Factorial Analysis of Variance with Three or More Variables = 368
Advantages and Virtues of Factorial Design and Analysis of Variance = 371
Factorial Analysis of Variance : Control = 372
Research Examples = 374
Race, Sex, and College Admissions = 374
The Effect of Gender, Type of Rape, and Information on Perception = 375
Student Essays and Teacher Evaluation = 376
Computer Addendum = 377
Chapter Summary = 384
Study Suggestions = 385
Chapter 15 Analysis of Variance : Correlated Groups = 387
Definition of the Problem = 388
A Fictitious Example = 389
An Explanatory Digression = 390
Reexamination of Table 15.2 Data = 393
Further Considerations = 394
Extracting Variances by Subtraction = 397
Removal of Systematic Sources of Variance = 398
Additional Correlated Analysis of Variance Designs = 400
Research Examples = 403
Ironic effects of Trying to Relax Under Stress = 403
Learning Sets of Isopods = 403
Business : Bidding Behavior = 405
Computer Addendum = 406
Chapter Summary = 409
Study Suggestions = 409
Chapter 16 Nonparametric Analysis of Variance and Related Statistics = 413
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics = 414
Assumption of Normality = 415
Homogeneity of Variance = 416
Continuity and Equal Intervals of Measures = 416
Independence of Observations = 417
Nonparametric Analysis of Variance = 418
One-Way Analysis of Variance : The Kruskal-Wallis Test = 418
Two-Way Analysis of Variance : The Friedman Test = 420
The Coefficient of Concordance, W = 423
Properties of Nonparametric Methods = 424
Computer Addendum = 425
The Kruskal-Wallis Test on SPSS = 425
The Friedman Test on SPSS = 430
Chapter Summary = 431
Study Suggestions = 431
Part Six Designs of Research = 435
Chapter 17 Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Science Research = 437
Fiction and Reality = 437
A Beginning? = 439
Some General Guidelines = 442
Guidelines from the American Psychological Association = 443
General Considerations = 443
The Participant at Minimal Risk = 443
Fairness, Responsibility, and Informed Consent = 444
Deception = 444
Debriefing = 444
Freedom from Coercion = 445
Protection of Participants = 445
Confidentiality = 445
Ethics of Animal Research = 446
Chapter Summary = 447
Study Suggestions = 448
Chapter 18 Research Design : Purpose and Principles = 449
Purposes of Research Design = 450
An Example = 451
A Stronger Design = 452
Research Designs as Variance Control = 455
A Controversial Example = 456
Maximization of Experimental Variance = 459
Control of Extraneous Variables = 460
Minimization of Error Variance = 462
Chapter Summary = 463
Study Suggestions = 464
Chapter 19 Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria = 465
Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches = 466
Symbolism and Definitions = 467
Faulty Designs = 468
Measurement, History, Maturation = 470
The Regression Effect = 470
Criteria of Research Design = 472
Answer Research Questions? = 472
Control of Extraneous Independent Variables = 473
Generalizability = 474
Internal and External Validity = 475
Chapter Summary = 478
Study Suggestions = 479
Chapter 20 General Designs of Research = 481
Conceptual Foundations of Research Design = 482
A Prdliminary Note : Experimental Designs and Analysis of Variance = 484
The Designs = 485
The Notion of the Control Group and Extensions of Design 20.1 = 486
Matching versus Randomization = 489
Matching by Equating Participants = 490
The Frequency Distribution Matching Method = 491
Matching by Holding Variables Constant = 492
Matching by Incorporating the Nuisance Variable Into the Research Design = 492
Participant as Own Control = 493
Additional Design Extensions : Design 20.3 Using a Pretest = 493
Difference Scores = 495
Chapter Summary = 499
Study Suggestions = 500
Chapter 21 Research Design Applications : Randomized Groups and Correlated Groups = 501
Simple Randomized Subjects Design = 502
A Research Example = 502
Dolinski and Nawrat : Fear-then-Relief and Compliance = 502
Factorial Designs = 504
Factorial Designs with More than Two Variables = 505
Research Examples of Factorial Designs = 505
Sigall and Ostrove : Attractiveness and Crime = 506
Quilici and Mayer : Examples, Schema and Learning = 506
Example 1 = 507
Example 2 = 507
Example 3 = 507
Example 4 = 507
Hoyt : Teacher Knowledge and Pupil Achievement = 508
Evaluation of Randomized Subjects Designs = 510
Correlated Groups = 511
The General Paradigm = 512
Units = 513
One Group Repeated Trials Design = 513
Two groups, Experimental Group-Control Group Designs = 514
Research Examples of Correlated Group Designs = 515
Miller and DiCara : Learning of Autonomic Functions = 516
Tipper, Eissenberg, and Weaver : Effects of Practice on Selective Attention = 518
Multigroup Correlated Groups Designs = 519
Units Variance = 519
Factorial Correlated Groups = 520
Suedfeld and Rank : Revolutionary Leaders and Conceptual Complexity = 521
Perrine, Lisle, and Tucker : Offer of Help and Willingness to Seek Support = 522
Analysis of Covariance = 523
Clark and Walberg : Massive Reinforcement and Reading Achievement = 524
Research Design and Analysis : Concluding Remarks = 525
Computer Addendum = 526
Chapter Summary = 528
Study Suggestions = 529
Part Seven Types of Research = 533
Chapter 22 Quasi-Experimental and N ＝ 1 Designs of Research = 535
Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental Designs = 536
Nonequivalent Control Group Design = 536
No-Treatment Control Group Design = 537
Research Examples = 543
Nelson, Hall, and Walsh-Bowers : Nonequivalent Control Group Design = 543
Chapman and McCauley : Quasi-Experiment = 543
Time Designs = 544
Multiple Time Series Design = 546
Single Subject Experimental Designs = 546
Some Advantages of Doing Single-Subject Studies = 548
Some Disadvantages of Using Single-Subject Designs = 549
Some Single-Subject research Paradigms = 550
The Stable Baseline : An Important Goal = 550
Designs that Use the Withdrawal of Treatment = 550
The ABA Design = 550
Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs) = 551
A Research Example = 552
Powell and Nelson : Example of and ABAB Design = 552
Using Multiple Baselines = 553
Chapter Summary = 554
Study Suggestions = 555
Chapter 23 Nonexperimental Research = 557
Definition = 558
Basic Difference Between Experimental and Nonexperimental Research = 558
Self-Selection and Nonexperimental Research = 560
Large-Scale Nonexperimental Research = 561
Determinants of School Achievement = 562
Response Style Differences between East Asian and North American Students = 563
Smaller Scale Nonexperimental Research = 564
Cochran and Mays : Sex, Lies, and HIV = 564
Elbert : Impaired Reading and Written Language in Attention Deficit Children = 565
Testing Alternative Hypotheses = 566
Evaluation of Nonexperimental Research = 568
The Limitations of Nonexperimental Interpretation = 568
The Value of Nonexperimental Research = 569
Conclusions = 570
Chapter Summary = 571
Study Suggestions = 571
Chapter 24 Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies = 575
A Laboratory Experiment : Miller Studies of the Learning of Visceral Responses = 576
A Field Experiment : Rind and Bordia's Study on the Effects of a Server's "Thank You" and Personalization on Restaurant Tipping = 577
A Field Study : Newcomb's Bennington College Study = 578
Characteristics and Criteria of Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies = 579
Strengths and Weaknesses of Laboratory Experiments = 579
Purposes of the Laboratory Experiment = 581
The Field Experiment = 581
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies = 582
Field Studies = 585
Types of Field Studies = 586
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies = 586
Qualitative Research = 588
Addendum = 593
The Holistic Experimental Paradigm = 593
Chapter Summary = 595
Study Suggestions = 596
Chapter 25 Survey Research = 599
Types of Surveys = 601
Interviews and Schedules = 601
Other Types of Survey Research = 603
The Methodology of Survey Research = 604
Checking Survey Data = 607
Three Studies = 608
Verba and Nie : Political Participation in America = 608
Docter and Prince : A Survey of Male Cross-Dressers = 609
Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi, and Zane : Community Health Services for Ethnic Minorities = 610
Applications of Survey Research to Education = 611
Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research = 613
Meta-Analysis = 614
Chapter Summary = 618
Study Suggestions = 619
Part Eight Measurement = 621
Chapter 26 Foundations of Measurement = 623
Definition of Measurement = 625
Measurement and "Reality" Isomorphism = 627
Properties, Constructs, and Indicants of Objects = 629
Levels of Measurement and Scaling = 630
Classification and Enumeration = 631
Nominal Measurement = 632
Ordinal Measurement = 632
Interval Measurement (Scales) = 634
Ratio Measurement (Scales) = 635
Comparisons of Scales : Practical Considerations and Statistics = 635
Chapter Summary = 638
Study Suggestions = 639
Chapter 27 Reliability = 641
Definitions of Reliability = 642
Theory of Reliability = 645
Two Computational Examples = 648
The Interpretation of the Reliability Coeficient = 652
The Stanadard Error of the Mean and the Standard Error of Measurement = 657
The Improvement of Reliability = 659
The Value of Reliability = 662
Chapter Summary = 663
Study Suggestions = 664
Chapter 28 Validity = 665
Types of Validity = 666
Content Validity and Content Validation = 667
Criterion-Related Validity and Validation = 668
Decision Aspects of Validity = 669
Multiple Predictors and Criteria = 670
Construct Validity and Construct Validation = 670
Convergence and Discriminability = 671
A Hypothetical Example of Construct Validation = 672
The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method = 674
Research Examples of Concurrent Validation = 676
Research Examples of Construct Validation = 676
A Measure of Anti-Semitism = 677
A Measure of Personality = 677
The Measurement of Democracy = 678
Other Methods of Construct Validation = 679
A Variance Definition of Validity : The Variance Relation of Reliability and Validity = 680
Statistical Relation between Reliability and Validity = 684
The Validity and Reliability of Psychological and Eduational Measurement Instruments = 685
Chapter Summary = 685
Study Suggestions = 686
Part Nine Methods of Observation and Data Collection = 689
Chapter 29 Interviews and Interview Schedules = 691
Interviews and Schedules as Tools of Science = 693
The Interview = 693
The Interview Schedule = 694
Kinds of Schedule Information and Items = 694
Fixed-Alternative Items = 695
Example = 695
Open-Ended Items = 695
Example = 696
Scale Items = 696
Criteria of Question-Writing = 697
The Value of Interviews and Interview Schedules = 699
The Focus Group and Group Interviewing : Another Interviewing Method = 700
Some Examples of Focus Group Research = 701
Chapter Summary = 702
Study Suggestions = 703
Classical Works = 703
More Recent Works = 703
"Normal" Studies = 704
Chapter 30 Objective Tests and Scales = 707
Objectivity and Objective Methods of Observation = 708
Tests and Scales : Definitions = 709
Types of Objective Measures = 709
Intelligence and Aptitude Tests = 709
Achievement Tests = 710
Personality Measures = 711
Attitude Scales = 712
Value Scales = 715
Types of Objective Scales and Items = 716
Examples = 716
Agreement-Disagreement Items = 717
Rank Order Items and Scales = 718
Forced-Choice Items and Scales = 719
Ipsative and Normative Measures = 721
Choice and Construction of Objective Measures = 723
Chapter Summary = 724
Study Suggestions = 725
Chapter 31 Observations of Behavior and Sociometry = 727
Problems in Observing Behavior = 728
The Observer = 728
Validity and Reliability = 729
Categories = 731
Units of Behavior = 731
Cooperativeness = 732
Observer Inference = 732
Generality or Applicability = 733
Sampling of Behavior = 734
Rating Scales = 736
Types of Rating Scales = 737
Examples = 737
Weaknesses of Rating Scales = 738
Examples of Observation Systems = 739
Time Sampling of Play Behavior of Hearing-Impaired Children = 739
Observation and Evaluation of College Teaching = 740
Assessment of Behavioral Observation = 741
Sociometry = 742
Sociometry and Sociometric Choice = 742
Example = 742
Example = 743
Methods of Sociometric Analysis = 743
Sociometric Matrices = 743
Sociograms or Directed Graphs = 745
Sociometric Indices = 746
Research Uses of Sociometry = 747
Prejudice in Schools = 748
Sociometry and Stereotypes = 748
Sociometry and Social Status = 748
Race, Belief, and Sociometric Choice = 748
Chapter Summary = 749
Study Suggestions = 751
Part Ten Multivariate Approaches = 753
Chapter 32 Multiple Regression Analysis : Foundations = 755
Three Research Examples = 755
Simple Regression Analysis = 757
Multiple Linear Regression = 761
An Example = 761
The Multiple Correlation Coefficient = 768
Tests of Statistical Significance = 771
Significance Tests of Individual Regression Weights = 773
Interpretation of Multiple Regression Statistics = 773
Statistical Significance of the Regression and R² = 773
Relative Contributions to Y of the Xs = 774
Other Analytic and Interpretative Problems = 777
Research Examples = 780
DDT and Bald Eagles = 780
Inflation Bias in Self-Assessment Examinations = 781
Multiple Regression Analysis and Scientific Research = 782
Chapter Summary = 783
Study Suggestions = 784
Chapter 33 Multiple Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Other Multivariate Methods = 787
One-Way Analysis of Variance and Multiple Regression Analysis = 788
Coding and Data Analysis = 792
Factorial Analyis of Variance, Analysis of Covariance, and Related Analyses = 795
Analysis of Covariance = 796
Discriminant Analysis, Canonical Correlation, Multivariate Analysis of Variance, and Path Analysis = 799
Discriminant Analysis = 799
Canonical Correlation = 800
Research Examples = 802
Multivariate Analysis of Variance = 802
Path Analysis = 803
Ridge Regression, Logistic Regression, and Log-linear Analysis = 805
Ridge Regression = 805
The Problem with Ordinary-Least-Squares (OLS) = 806
Research Example = 808
Logistic Regression = 808
A Research Example = 810
Multiway Contingency Tables and Log-Linear analysis = 811
Research Example = 816
Multivariate Analysis and Behavioral Research = 817
Chapter Summary = 818
Study Suggestions = 820
Chapter 34 Factor Analysis = 825
Foundations = 826
A Brief History = 826
A Hypothetical Example = 827
Factor Matrices and Factor Loadings = 829
Some Factor Theory = 831
Graphical Representation of Factors and Factor Loadings = 833
Extraction and Rotation of Factors, Factor Scores, and Second-Order Factor Analysis = 834
The Communality and Number of Factors Problems = 835
The Principal Factor Method = 836
Rotation and Simple Structure = 839
Second-Order Factor Analysis = 844
Factor Scores = 845
Research Examples = 846
The Comrey Personality Scales = 846
Thurstone Factorial Study of Intelligence = 847
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence = 847
Confirmatory Factor Analysis = 849
Research Example Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis = 851
Factor Analysis and Scientific Research = 854
Chapter Summary = 857
Study Suggestions = 858
Chapter 35 Analysis of Covariance Structures = 863
Covariance Structures, Latent Variables, and Testing Theory = 864
Testing Alternative Factor Hypotheses : Duality Versus Bipolarity of Social Attitudes = 868
Latent Variable Influences : The Full Eqs System = 876
Setting Up the EQS Structure = 878
Research Studies = 880
Verba and Nie : Political Participation in America = 881
Brecht, Dracup, Moser, and Riegel : Relationship of Marital Quality and Psychosocial Adjustment = 882
Conclusions - and Reservations = 884
Chapter Summary = 887
Study Suggestions = 888
Appendix A = A1
Appendix B = B1
References = R1
Name Index = NI-1
Subject Index = SI-1
Part One The Language and Approach of Science = 1
Chapter 1 Science and the Scientific Approach = 3
Science and Common Sense = 4
Four Methods of Knowing = 6
Science and Its Functions = 8
The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory = 11
Scientific Research : A Definition = 14
The Scientific Approach = 15
Problem-Obstacle-Idea = 15
Hypothesis = 15
Reasoning-Deduction = 15
Observation-Test-Experiment = 17
Chapter Summary = 19
Study Suggestions = 20
Chapter 2 Problems and Hypotheses = 23
Problems = 24
Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements = 25
Hypotheses = 26
The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses = 27
Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses = 28
Problems, Values, and Definitions = 30
Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hypotheses = 31
The Multivariable Nature of Behavorial Research and Problems = 32
Concluding Remarks : The Special Power of Hypotheses = 33
Chapter Summary = 34
Study Suggestions = 35
Chapter 3 Constructs, Variables, and Definitions = 41
Concepts and Constructs = 42
Variables = 42
Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables = 43
Types of Variables = 48
Independent and Dependent Variables = 48
Active and Attribute Variables = 53
Continuous and Categorical Variables = 54
Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables = 56
Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions = 57
Chapter Summary = 61
Study Suggestions = 62
Part Two Sets, Relations, and Variance = 63
Chapter 4 Sets = 65
Subsets = 66
Set Operations = 67
The Universal and Empty Sets ; Set Negation = 68
Set Diagrams = 69
Set Operations with More Than Two Sets = 70
Partitions and Cross Partitions = 71
Levels of Discourse = 74
Chapter Summary = 77
Study Suggestions = 78
Chapter 5 Relations = 81
Relations as Sets of Ordered Pairs = 82
Determining Relations in Research = 85
Rules of Correspondence and Mapping = 87
Some Ways to Study Relations = 88
Graphs = 88
Tables = 88
Graphs and Correlation = 92
Research Examples = 95
Multivariate Relations and Regression = 98
Some Logic of Multivariate Inquiry = 98
Multiple Relations and Regression = 100
Chapter Summary = 101
Study Suggestions = 101
Chapter 6 Variance and Covariance = 103
Calculation of Means and Variances = 104
Kinds of Variance = 106
Population and Sample Variances = 106
Systematic Variance = 107
Between-Groups(Experimental) Variance = 107
Error Variance = 110
An Example of Systematic and Error Variance = 111
A Subtractive Demonstration : Removing Between-Groups Variance from Total Variance = 114
A Recap of Removing Between-Group Variance from Total Variance = 117
Components of Variance = 118
Covariance = 119
The Computer Addendum = 122
Chapter Summary = 128
Study Suggestions = 129
Part Three Probability, Randomness, and Sampling = 131
Chapter 7 Probability = 133
Definition of Probability = 134
Sample Space, Sample Points, and Events = 135
Determining Probabilities with Coins = 138
An Experiment with Dice = 139
Some Formal Theory = 141
Compound Events and Their Probabilities = 143
Independence, Mutual Exclusiveness, and Exhaustiveness = 145
Conditional Probability = 150
Definition of Conditional Probability = 150
An Academic Example = 152
Bayes' Theorem : Revising Probabilities = 155
Example = 156
Chapter Summary = 158
Study Suggestions = 159
Chapter 8 Sampling and Randomness = 163
Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representativeness = 164
Randomness = 167
An Example of Random Sampling = 167
Randomization = 169
A Senatorial Randomization Demonstration = 171
Sample Size = 175
Kinds of Samples = 178
Some Books on Sampling = 182
Chapter Summary = 183
Study Suggestions = 183
Computer Program Listing to Generate Table 8.2 = 186
Part Four Analysis, Interpretation, Statistics, and Inference = 189
Chapter 9 Principles of Analysis and Interpretation = 191
Frequencies and Continuous = 193
Rules of Categorization = 194
Kinds of Statistical Analysis = 198
Frequency Distributions = 199
Graphs and Graphing = 200
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability = 202
Measures of Relations = 203
Analysis of Differences = 204
Analysis of Variance and Related Methods = 205
Profile Analysis = 207
Multivariate Analysis = 208
Indices = 211
Social Indicators = 213
The Interpretation of Research Data = 214
Adequacy of Research Design, Methodology, Measurement, and Analysis = 215
Negative and Inconclusive Results = 216
Unhypothesized Relations and Unanticipated Findings = 216
Proof, Probability, and Interpretation = 218
Chapter Summary = 219
Study Suggestions = 219
Chapter 10 The Analysis of Frequencies = 221
Data and Variable Terminology = 223
Crosstabs : Definitions and Purpose = 224
Simple Crosstabs and Rules for Crosstab Construction = 225
Calculation of Percentages = 227
Statistical Significance and the X² Test = 229
Levels of Statistical Significance = 232
Types of Crosstabs and Tables = 236
One-Dimensional Tables = 236
Two-Dimensional Tables = 237
Two-Dimensional Tables, "True" Dichotomies, and Continuous Measures = 240
Three-and k-Dimensional Tables = 240
Specification = 241
Crosstabulations, Relations, and Ordered Pairs = 243
The Odds Ratio = 246
Multivariate Analysis of Frequency Data = 247
Computer Addendum = 248
Chapter Summary = 253
Study Suggestions = 254
Chapter 11 Statistics : Purpose, Approach, Method = 257
The Basic Approach = 257
Definition and Purpose of Statistics = 258
Binomial Statistics = 260
The Variance = 262
The Law of Large Numbers = 264
The Normal Probability Curve and the Standard Deviation = 265
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Frequency Data = 268
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probability Curve-Continuous Data = 269
Chapter Summary = 272
Study Suggestions = 273
Chapter 12 Testing Hypotheses and the Standard Error = 275
Examples : Differences Between Means = 276
Absolute and Relative Differences = 277
Correlation Coefficients = 278
Hypothesis Testing : Substantive and Null Hypotheses = 279
The General Nature of a Standard Error = 282
A Monte Carlo Demonstration = 283
The Procedure = 283
Generalizations = 285
The Central Limit Theorem = 286
The Standard Error of the Differences between Means = 287
Statistical Inference = 290
Testing Hypotheses and the Two Types of Errors = 291
The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing = 295
Sample Size Determination = 295
Example = 297
Chapter Summary = 299
Study Suggestions = 300
Part Five Analysis of Variance = 305
Chapter 13 Analysis of Variance : Foundations = 307
Variance Breakdown : A Simple Example = 308
The t-Ratio Approach = 312
The Analysis of Variance Approach = 313
An Example of a Statistically Significant Difference = 315
Calculation of One-Way Analysis of Variance = 317
A Research Example = 321
Strength of Relations : Correlation and the Analysis of Variance = 322
Broadening the Structure : Post Hoc Tests and Planned Comparisons = 327
Post Hoc Tests = 328
Planned Comparisons = 328
Computer Addendum = 331
t-Ratio or t-Test on SPSS = 331
One-Way ANOVA on SPSS = 336
Addendum = 340
Chapter Summary = 340
Study Suggestions = 341
Chapter 14 Factorial Analysis of Variance = 345
Two Research Examples = 346
The Nature of Factorial Analysis of Variance = 350
The Meaning of Interaction = 352
A Simple Fictitious Example = 352
Interaction : An Example = 359
Kinds of Interaction = 362
Notes of Caution = 365
Interaction and Interpretation = 367
Factorial Analysis of Variance with Three or More Variables = 368
Advantages and Virtues of Factorial Design and Analysis of Variance = 371
Factorial Analysis of Variance : Control = 372
Research Examples = 374
Race, Sex, and College Admissions = 374
The Effect of Gender, Type of Rape, and Information on Perception = 375
Student Essays and Teacher Evaluation = 376
Computer Addendum = 377
Chapter Summary = 384
Study Suggestions = 385
Chapter 15 Analysis of Variance : Correlated Groups = 387
Definition of the Problem = 388
A Fictitious Example = 389
An Explanatory Digression = 390
Reexamination of Table 15.2 Data = 393
Further Considerations = 394
Extracting Variances by Subtraction = 397
Removal of Systematic Sources of Variance = 398
Additional Correlated Analysis of Variance Designs = 400
Research Examples = 403
Ironic effects of Trying to Relax Under Stress = 403
Learning Sets of Isopods = 403
Business : Bidding Behavior = 405
Computer Addendum = 406
Chapter Summary = 409
Study Suggestions = 409
Chapter 16 Nonparametric Analysis of Variance and Related Statistics = 413
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics = 414
Assumption of Normality = 415
Homogeneity of Variance = 416
Continuity and Equal Intervals of Measures = 416
Independence of Observations = 417
Nonparametric Analysis of Variance = 418
One-Way Analysis of Variance : The Kruskal-Wallis Test = 418
Two-Way Analysis of Variance : The Friedman Test = 420
The Coefficient of Concordance, W = 423
Properties of Nonparametric Methods = 424
Computer Addendum = 425
The Kruskal-Wallis Test on SPSS = 425
The Friedman Test on SPSS = 430
Chapter Summary = 431
Study Suggestions = 431
Part Six Designs of Research = 435
Chapter 17 Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Science Research = 437
Fiction and Reality = 437
A Beginning? = 439
Some General Guidelines = 442
Guidelines from the American Psychological Association = 443
General Considerations = 443
The Participant at Minimal Risk = 443
Fairness, Responsibility, and Informed Consent = 444
Deception = 444
Debriefing = 444
Freedom from Coercion = 445
Protection of Participants = 445
Confidentiality = 445
Ethics of Animal Research = 446
Chapter Summary = 447
Study Suggestions = 448
Chapter 18 Research Design : Purpose and Principles = 449
Purposes of Research Design = 450
An Example = 451
A Stronger Design = 452
Research Designs as Variance Control = 455
A Controversial Example = 456
Maximization of Experimental Variance = 459
Control of Extraneous Variables = 460
Minimization of Error Variance = 462
Chapter Summary = 463
Study Suggestions = 464
Chapter 19 Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria = 465
Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches = 466
Symbolism and Definitions = 467
Faulty Designs = 468
Measurement, History, Maturation = 470
The Regression Effect = 470
Criteria of Research Design = 472
Answer Research Questions? = 472
Control of Extraneous Independent Variables = 473
Generalizability = 474
Internal and External Validity = 475
Chapter Summary = 478
Study Suggestions = 479
Chapter 20 General Designs of Research = 481
Conceptual Foundations of Research Design = 482
A Prdliminary Note : Experimental Designs and Analysis of Variance = 484
The Designs = 485
The Notion of the Control Group and Extensions of Design 20.1 = 486
Matching versus Randomization = 489
Matching by Equating Participants = 490
The Frequency Distribution Matching Method = 491
Matching by Holding Variables Constant = 492
Matching by Incorporating the Nuisance Variable Into the Research Design = 492
Participant as Own Control = 493
Additional Design Extensions : Design 20.3 Using a Pretest = 493
Difference Scores = 495
Chapter Summary = 499
Study Suggestions = 500
Chapter 21 Research Design Applications : Randomized Groups and Correlated Groups = 501
Simple Randomized Subjects Design = 502
A Research Example = 502
Dolinski and Nawrat : Fear-then-Relief and Compliance = 502
Factorial Designs = 504
Factorial Designs with More than Two Variables = 505
Research Examples of Factorial Designs = 505
Sigall and Ostrove : Attractiveness and Crime = 506
Quilici and Mayer : Examples, Schema and Learning = 506
Example 1 = 507
Example 2 = 507
Example 3 = 507
Example 4 = 507
Hoyt : Teacher Knowledge and Pupil Achievement = 508
Evaluation of Randomized Subjects Designs = 510
Correlated Groups = 511
The General Paradigm = 512
Units = 513
One Group Repeated Trials Design = 513
Two groups, Experimental Group-Control Group Designs = 514
Research Examples of Correlated Group Designs = 515
Miller and DiCara : Learning of Autonomic Functions = 516
Tipper, Eissenberg, and Weaver : Effects of Practice on Selective Attention = 518
Multigroup Correlated Groups Designs = 519
Units Variance = 519
Factorial Correlated Groups = 520
Suedfeld and Rank : Revolutionary Leaders and Conceptual Complexity = 521
Perrine, Lisle, and Tucker : Offer of Help and Willingness to Seek Support = 522
Analysis of Covariance = 523
Clark and Walberg : Massive Reinforcement and Reading Achievement = 524
Research Design and Analysis : Concluding Remarks = 525
Computer Addendum = 526
Chapter Summary = 528
Study Suggestions = 529
Part Seven Types of Research = 533
Chapter 22 Quasi-Experimental and N ＝ 1 Designs of Research = 535
Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental Designs = 536
Nonequivalent Control Group Design = 536
No-Treatment Control Group Design = 537
Research Examples = 543
Nelson, Hall, and Walsh-Bowers : Nonequivalent Control Group Design = 543
Chapman and McCauley : Quasi-Experiment = 543
Time Designs = 544
Multiple Time Series Design = 546
Single Subject Experimental Designs = 546
Some Advantages of Doing Single-Subject Studies = 548
Some Disadvantages of Using Single-Subject Designs = 549
Some Single-Subject research Paradigms = 550
The Stable Baseline : An Important Goal = 550
Designs that Use the Withdrawal of Treatment = 550
The ABA Design = 550
Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs) = 551
A Research Example = 552
Powell and Nelson : Example of and ABAB Design = 552
Using Multiple Baselines = 553
Chapter Summary = 554
Study Suggestions = 555
Chapter 23 Nonexperimental Research = 557
Definition = 558
Basic Difference Between Experimental and Nonexperimental Research = 558
Self-Selection and Nonexperimental Research = 560
Large-Scale Nonexperimental Research = 561
Determinants of School Achievement = 562
Response Style Differences between East Asian and North American Students = 563
Smaller Scale Nonexperimental Research = 564
Cochran and Mays : Sex, Lies, and HIV = 564
Elbert : Impaired Reading and Written Language in Attention Deficit Children = 565
Testing Alternative Hypotheses = 566
Evaluation of Nonexperimental Research = 568
The Limitations of Nonexperimental Interpretation = 568
The Value of Nonexperimental Research = 569
Conclusions = 570
Chapter Summary = 571
Study Suggestions = 571
Chapter 24 Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies = 575
A Laboratory Experiment : Miller Studies of the Learning of Visceral Responses = 576
A Field Experiment : Rind and Bordia's Study on the Effects of a Server's "Thank You" and Personalization on Restaurant Tipping = 577
A Field Study : Newcomb's Bennington College Study = 578
Characteristics and Criteria of Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies = 579
Strengths and Weaknesses of Laboratory Experiments = 579
Purposes of the Laboratory Experiment = 581
The Field Experiment = 581
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies = 582
Field Studies = 585
Types of Field Studies = 586
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies = 586
Qualitative Research = 588
Addendum = 593
The Holistic Experimental Paradigm = 593
Chapter Summary = 595
Study Suggestions = 596
Chapter 25 Survey Research = 599
Types of Surveys = 601
Interviews and Schedules = 601
Other Types of Survey Research = 603
The Methodology of Survey Research = 604
Checking Survey Data = 607
Three Studies = 608
Verba and Nie : Political Participation in America = 608
Docter and Prince : A Survey of Male Cross-Dressers = 609
Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi, and Zane : Community Health Services for Ethnic Minorities = 610
Applications of Survey Research to Education = 611
Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research = 613
Meta-Analysis = 614
Chapter Summary = 618
Study Suggestions = 619
Part Eight Measurement = 621
Chapter 26 Foundations of Measurement = 623
Definition of Measurement = 625
Measurement and "Reality" Isomorphism = 627
Properties, Constructs, and Indicants of Objects = 629
Levels of Measurement and Scaling = 630
Classification and Enumeration = 631
Nominal Measurement = 632
Ordinal Measurement = 632
Interval Measurement (Scales) = 634
Ratio Measurement (Scales) = 635
Comparisons of Scales : Practical Considerations and Statistics = 635
Chapter Summary = 638
Study Suggestions = 639
Chapter 27 Reliability = 641
Definitions of Reliability = 642
Theory of Reliability = 645
Two Computational Examples = 648
The Interpretation of the Reliability Coeficient = 652
The Stanadard Error of the Mean and the Standard Error of Measurement = 657
The Improvement of Reliability = 659
The Value of Reliability = 662
Chapter Summary = 663
Study Suggestions = 664
Chapter 28 Validity = 665
Types of Validity = 666
Content Validity and Content Validation = 667
Criterion-Related Validity and Validation = 668
Decision Aspects of Validity = 669
Multiple Predictors and Criteria = 670
Construct Validity and Construct Validation = 670
Convergence and Discriminability = 671
A Hypothetical Example of Construct Validation = 672
The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method = 674
Research Examples of Concurrent Validation = 676
Research Examples of Construct Validation = 676
A Measure of Anti-Semitism = 677
A Measure of Personality = 677
The Measurement of Democracy = 678
Other Methods of Construct Validation = 679
A Variance Definition of Validity : The Variance Relation of Reliability and Validity = 680
Statistical Relation between Reliability and Validity = 684
The Validity and Reliability of Psychological and Eduational Measurement Instruments = 685
Chapter Summary = 685
Study Suggestions = 686
Part Nine Methods of Observation and Data Collection = 689
Chapter 29 Interviews and Interview Schedules = 691
Interviews and Schedules as Tools of Science = 693
The Interview = 693
The Interview Schedule = 694
Kinds of Schedule Information and Items = 694
Fixed-Alternative Items = 695
Example = 695
Open-Ended Items = 695
Example = 696
Scale Items = 696
Criteria of Question-Writing = 697
The Value of Interviews and Interview Schedules = 699
The Focus Group and Group Interviewing : Another Interviewing Method = 700
Some Examples of Focus Group Research = 701
Chapter Summary = 702
Study Suggestions = 703
Classical Works = 703
More Recent Works = 703
"Normal" Studies = 704
Chapter 30 Objective Tests and Scales = 707
Objectivity and Objective Methods of Observation = 708
Tests and Scales : Definitions = 709
Types of Objective Measures = 709
Intelligence and Aptitude Tests = 709
Achievement Tests = 710
Personality Measures = 711
Attitude Scales = 712
Value Scales = 715
Types of Objective Scales and Items = 716
Examples = 716
Agreement-Disagreement Items = 717
Rank Order Items and Scales = 718
Forced-Choice Items and Scales = 719
Ipsative and Normative Measures = 721
Choice and Construction of Objective Measures = 723
Chapter Summary = 724
Study Suggestions = 725
Chapter 31 Observations of Behavior and Sociometry = 727
Problems in Observing Behavior = 728
The Observer = 728
Validity and Reliability = 729
Categories = 731
Units of Behavior = 731
Cooperativeness = 732
Observer Inference = 732
Generality or Applicability = 733
Sampling of Behavior = 734
Rating Scales = 736
Types of Rating Scales = 737
Examples = 737
Weaknesses of Rating Scales = 738
Examples of Observation Systems = 739
Time Sampling of Play Behavior of Hearing-Impaired Children = 739
Observation and Evaluation of College Teaching = 740
Assessment of Behavioral Observation = 741
Sociometry = 742
Sociometry and Sociometric Choice = 742
Example = 742
Example = 743
Methods of Sociometric Analysis = 743
Sociometric Matrices = 743
Sociograms or Directed Graphs = 745
Sociometric Indices = 746
Research Uses of Sociometry = 747
Prejudice in Schools = 748
Sociometry and Stereotypes = 748
Sociometry and Social Status = 748
Race, Belief, and Sociometric Choice = 748
Chapter Summary = 749
Study Suggestions = 751
Part Ten Multivariate Approaches = 753
Chapter 32 Multiple Regression Analysis : Foundations = 755
Three Research Examples = 755
Simple Regression Analysis = 757
Multiple Linear Regression = 761
An Example = 761
The Multiple Correlation Coefficient = 768
Tests of Statistical Significance = 771
Significance Tests of Individual Regression Weights = 773
Interpretation of Multiple Regression Statistics = 773
Statistical Significance of the Regression and R² = 773
Relative Contributions to Y of the Xs = 774
Other Analytic and Interpretative Problems = 777
Research Examples = 780
DDT and Bald Eagles = 780
Inflation Bias in Self-Assessment Examinations = 781
Multiple Regression Analysis and Scientific Research = 782
Chapter Summary = 783
Study Suggestions = 784
Chapter 33 Multiple Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Other Multivariate Methods = 787
One-Way Analysis of Variance and Multiple Regression Analysis = 788
Coding and Data Analysis = 792
Factorial Analyis of Variance, Analysis of Covariance, and Related Analyses = 795
Analysis of Covariance = 796
Discriminant Analysis, Canonical Correlation, Multivariate Analysis of Variance, and Path Analysis = 799
Discriminant Analysis = 799
Canonical Correlation = 800
Research Examples = 802
Multivariate Analysis of Variance = 802
Path Analysis = 803
Ridge Regression, Logistic Regression, and Log-linear Analysis = 805
Ridge Regression = 805
The Problem with Ordinary-Least-Squares (OLS) = 806
Research Example = 808
Logistic Regression = 808
A Research Example = 810
Multiway Contingency Tables and Log-Linear analysis = 811
Research Example = 816
Multivariate Analysis and Behavioral Research = 817
Chapter Summary = 818
Study Suggestions = 820
Chapter 34 Factor Analysis = 825
Foundations = 826
A Brief History = 826
A Hypothetical Example = 827
Factor Matrices and Factor Loadings = 829
Some Factor Theory = 831
Graphical Representation of Factors and Factor Loadings = 833
Extraction and Rotation of Factors, Factor Scores, and Second-Order Factor Analysis = 834
The Communality and Number of Factors Problems = 835
The Principal Factor Method = 836
Rotation and Simple Structure = 839
Second-Order Factor Analysis = 844
Factor Scores = 845
Research Examples = 846
The Comrey Personality Scales = 846
Thurstone Factorial Study of Intelligence = 847
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence = 847
Confirmatory Factor Analysis = 849
Research Example Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis = 851
Factor Analysis and Scientific Research = 854
Chapter Summary = 857
Study Suggestions = 858
Chapter 35 Analysis of Covariance Structures = 863
Covariance Structures, Latent Variables, and Testing Theory = 864
Testing Alternative Factor Hypotheses : Duality Versus Bipolarity of Social Attitudes = 868
Latent Variable Influences : The Full Eqs System = 876
Setting Up the EQS Structure = 878
Research Studies = 880
Verba and Nie : Political Participation in America = 881
Brecht, Dracup, Moser, and Riegel : Relationship of Marital Quality and Psychosocial Adjustment = 882
Conclusions - and Reservations = 884
Chapter Summary = 887
Study Suggestions = 888
Appendix A = A1
Appendix B = B1
References = R1
Name Index = NI-1
Subject Index = SI-1